Mechanical Doping

Interesting article on the latest "buzz" involving cycling and doping...

http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/05/sports/cycling/05cycle.html

Playing Active Video Games Similar To Moderate Exercise?

Some active video games, such as Wii Sports and Wii Fit, may equate to moderate exercise, according to latest research. One Japanese study showed that around one-third of the "virtual physical activities" evaluated require an energy expenditure of 3.0 METs or more, considered to be moderate-intensity exercise. METs, metabolic equivalent values, are a standard method of evaluating energy expenditure/cost of activities. The American Heart Association's exercise guidelines show moderate intensity is 3.0 to 6.0 METs. An adult walking at 5 km per hour on a level surface is expending about 3.3 METs.

Researchers found:
- Nine activities had less than 2 METs.
- Twenty-three activities had 2 - 3 METs.
- Nine activities had 3 - 4 METs.
- Five activities had more than 4 METs.

Wii Sports are a collection of five simple games based on boxing, golf, tennis, bowling and baseball. Boxing is the best activity to increase energy expenditure, around 4.5 METs, according to the study findings. Golf, bowling, tennis and baseball are 2.0, 2.6, 3.0, and 3.0 METs, respectively.
Wii Fit includes yoga, resistance/strength training, balance and aerobic exercises with more than 40 different activities, including push-ups, torso twists and single leg extensions. The 'single-arm stand' (Wii Fit), 5.6 METs, is regarded as a difficult resistance exercise and the highest energy cost. Intensities of yoga and balance exercises were much lower than those of the resistance and aerobic exercise, but are still effective in improving flexibility and in fall prevention.

Another research study also suggests that active video games present a good alternative to medium intensity exercise for children. When compared to watching television, calories used while walking will increase 2 to 3 times. Similar rates of energy expenditure, heart rate and perceived exertion were obtained from playing the games Wii Boxing, Dance Dance Revolution (Level 2) or walking at 3.5 mph (+-5km/h). Overall, the energy expenditure during active video game play was comparable to moderate-intensity walking.

Over 60 million sets of Wii sports and Wii fit have been sold worldwide.


The Gravity fitness centre at Le Parker Meridien hotel in New York on West 57th Street decided they would transform their old squash court into a Wii Fit and Wii Sport room so that New Yorkers with small apartments have a place where they can comfortably play on the Wii. Not only does this Wii installation have a nice digital projector, Wii Fit and Wii Sports, they even have a personal trainer. A Wii Sports session is pretty expensive, you pay $120 but you get personal one-on-one coaching from the human coach while you give the best of yourself in Wii Sports or Wii Fit. Some players claim that the personal trainer really motivates you to do the best you can. But there’s also a cheap $50 one hour session without the helpful personal trainer.

Altitude Training

Here’s an extract from the book "Physiology of Sport and Exercise" describing a climber’s experience during an expedition up Mount Everest. The climber did this climb without supplementary oxygen at 8 600m above altitude. “Our pace was wretched. My ambition was to do 20 consecutive paces uphill without a pause to rest and pant, elbow on bent knee, yet I never remember achieving it - 13 was nearer the mark.”

A person’s ability to consume maximal amounts of oxygen during exercise at altitude decreases as the altitude exceeds 1500m. For every thousand metres above 1500m the individual’s VO2 max will decrease by 11%. This means at extreme altitudes people barely have sufficient oxygen to function properly let alone thinking about moving.

Firstly we need to realize that there is a lower atmospheric pressure of gases and also a lower partial pressure of oxygen at higher altitudes. The partial pressure of oxygen at sea level is 104mmhg when compared with 46mmhg at 4,300m above altitude. So from this you can see how altitude drastically decreases the partial pressure of oxygen, which in turn will affect the pressure gradient that is required in order to move gases in and out. So at higher altitudes there is a smaller gradient between the arteries and working tissues resulting in less oxygen being diffused into the required areas. This is why when you exercise at altitude you immediately start to breathe at a greater rate to compensate for the lower pressure gradients and to deliver the adequate amount of oxygen into your system.

The body has its own system which evolves to overcome this lack of oxygen being diffused to the working tissues. In my previous article I talked about the hemoglobin saturation curve, now if you remember at lower partial pressure oxygen that is bound to hemoglobin is released. At altitude the partial pressure of oxygen is very low, meaning that oxygen is getting released from the hemoglobin protein very rapidly, so to counter this the blood pH increases resulting in a term known as respiratory alkalosis. If you think back to what changes the saturation curve, two things affect it, one being temperature and the other being blood ph level. Both of these factors result in the curve shifting to the right. In terms of respiratory alkalosis it’s the opposite, the curve shifts to the left resulting in more oxygen being bound to hemoglobin at lower partial pressure.

Changes that occur during training at altitude include a decrease in blood volume and an increase in cardiac output. A person’s blood volume decreases due to an increase in urine production, and also due to a loss of respiratory water. At higher altitudes there is less humidity present resulting in the body losing more water because the water that is lost during sweating gets evaporated straight away. This can be detrimental to training because it means athletes can dehydrate very rapidly. There is also a greater production of erythropoietin meaning more red blood cells and more hemoglobin gets produced. This is to ensure that there is more oxygen within the blood when it circulates around the body. Cardiac output is the volume of blood to be pumped by the ventricle per minute. It takes into account the blood volume and heart rate, which can be expressed as heart rate multiplied by stroke volume. During acute altitude exposure cardiac output increases due to an increase in heart rate so that greater amounts of blood can flow around the body to deposit oxygen to the needed areas. This is to compensate for the decrease in partial pressure of oxygen.

Trev

Sync or Swim

In response to our latest poll (Apr 2010), here's a sport and some info on it you may not have known. Synchronized swimming is an Olympics aquatic sport, combining elements of dance, gymnastics and swimming. Here's a link to an overview of the sport, including history, competitions, rules and regulations: http://www.faqs.org/sports-science/Sp-Tw/Synchronized-Swimming.html

A link to a docu-video of "synchro" training : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GGlyyPAnjAc

One of the most demanding sports, the athletes can train up to 10 hours/day, 6 days a week. This will include endurance, strength and power development, as well as extensive flexibility exercises. Various types of training are undertaken, including: gymnastics, cross-training, choreography (in and out of the water), core stability, trampolining and underwater work.

http://www.popsci.com/know-your-olympic-sport/article/2008-08/secrets-synchronized-swimming - An great article on the more "out there" concepts of synchronized swimming.

Hypertrophy - The Science of getting BIG (part 1)

In this part 1 of hypertrophy, I will focus on the physiology and anatomy of how and why our muscles grow through training. In parts 2 and 3, I will focus on the training needed for maximum hypertrophy and the nutritional demands and supplementation.

There are two ways that a muscle can grow and increase in its cross-sectional area (CSA). The increase in whole muscle CSA is primarily attributed to an increase in individual muscle fiber CSA. The other way of increasing muscle CSA is fiber hyperplasia, or the increase in number of muscle fibers within a certain muscle. This is still an ongoing debate within the topic of muscle hypertrophy (the fiber hyperplasia that is).

Individual fiber hypertrophy is a result an increase of protein synthesis (creation or building of more). Protein synthesis is always changing but the rate at which it changes is a result of the net gains of protein synthesis and protein degradation. Resistance training results in a net protein synthesis (Synthesis > Degradation).

During the exercise, degradation is higher than synthesis, but after exercise, during recovery, the synthesis increases and a net protein gain is the result. So adequate recovery is vital in gaining muscle mass (see article on exerQ – Strength training and recovery times). It involves an increase of contractile proteins actin and myosin (within myofibrils) and an increase in the myofibrils themselves. Other proteins such as structural proteins titin and nebulin for example also increase proportionally. A 2002 study by Roth et al. showed than resistance training alters up to 70 genes that almost all result in up regulation of muscle growth and down regulation of growth inhibitory factors.

Fiber hyperplasia has been shown to occur in animals but there is limited research and evidence that it occurs in humans. It has been shown to occur in animals under very high intensity resistance training. It has been shown that well trained athletes possess more fibers than untrained but it is uncertain whether or not it is to do with natural genetics or induced changes from training. Hyperplasia therefore cannot be thought of as a major contributor to muscle hypertrophy as there is little evidence of it in humans and if there is, it only contributes to > 10% of total hypertrophy.

So overall, individual muscle fiber hypertrophy and an increase in fiber CSA is the main reason for muscle mass increases following correct hypertrophy training periods.

JJ

check out these books
Essentials of strength training and conditioning 3rd edition - Baechle and Earle
Physiology of sport and exercise 4th edition - Wilmore, Costill, Kenney

Astronauts and Exercise in Space: New Developments

Astronauts in space can spend hours exercising everyday. This aims to counteract the detraining effect of zero gravity conditions, which cause numerous physiological changes in the body. In muscle tissue, mass and strength decrease over time. The strength loss is especially evident in the muscles used to maintain posture, as they become largely irrelevant whilst floating around a spacecraft. Another significant effect of weightlessness is a decline is the density of bone, about 2% per month on average in space. This is less reversible compared to muscular changes and can have a particularly debilitating impact on return to earth.

Cardiovascular changes include increased blood return to the heart, due to less gravity-induced pooling of blood in the legs, while the “puffy faces” of astronauts develop due to this redistribution of blood in the body. Decrease in overall blood volume also develops and can cause low blood pressure and fainting when back in normal gravity environments. Many of the changes contribute to an overall drop in maximal aerobic capacity/fitness (VO2 Max). These negative adaptations to out-of-orbit travel have generated more and more research in designing relevant exercise programs and equipment, which seeks to safeguard the future health of astronauts.

Many different types of exercise and training have been used, some proving more effective than others. Heavy “push-pull” equipment attached to the spaceship, elastic bands/cords/belts and resistive equipment have been developed, while “strap-down” treadmills and bicycles are the norm. One device, currently in use, is the advanced Resistive Exercise Device (aRED). This works with vacuum cylinders, similar to bicycle pumps in reverse, which can apply loads up to 250 kg, according to NASA. In the example of a squat, the vacuum engages as the astronaut stands up, and when squatting back down, the vacuum draws the bar back to the origin position. The main concern, even with creating beneficial weight-bearing or elastic equipment, is still a lack of a total unilateral force acting on the body such as gravity. This leaves the decreases in bone density largely unaffected.

Latest research mainly revolves around creating artificial gravity-like forces. One design, dubbed “The Space Cycle” by researchers at the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI), aims to accomplish this while aiming to be small enough and simple enough to operate and/or repair in a spacecraft. Picture a two-person, hanging merry-go-round. A rotating wheel sits on top of a central column. On one side of the wheel a reclining bicycle is suspended. Opposite is a cage-like platform, where a second person will stand. As the one astronaut pedals the bicycle, the whole apparatus starts to spin, causing both the bicycle and the platform to rotate around the column. As the rotational speed increases, both astronauts begin to experience effects of this centrifugal force as a form of artificial gravity.

Astronauts on long-term missions presently need approximately two hours of standard exercise a day to resist the effects of micro-gravity. The Space Cycle is seen as a way of reducing this exercise time, therefore increasing the productivity of those onboard. The weight of the mechanism, which is currently constructed out of steel, poses a problem. This may be reduced in the future using carbon composite materials, which may also slightly reduce its diameter, making it possible for use on the International Space Station.

Jed

Gene Doping: From The Inside Out

Defined by the World Anti-Doping Agency as “the non-therapeutic use of cells, genes, genetic elements, or of the modulation (adjusting) of gene expression, having the capacity to improve athletic performance", this relatively new form of performance enhancement is possibly going to turn doping on it’s head, while pushing ethics and morality in sport and the sport industry to the fore.

First of all, what is a Gene?
Inside human cells, genes provide a sort of “blueprint” or instruction for protein production. Genes are made up of chains or arrangements of DNA. This determines how the cell will function and also its physical attributes.

Gene doping developed out of the concept of gene therapy; treatment developed to cure or ease genetic diseases and disorders such as muscular dystrophy or sickle-cell anaemia. Damaged or flawed genes are replaced with modified, functional ones. These same techniques that can help ordinary people stay healthier could be used to create “superathletes”; weightlifters who “naturally” have larger thigh muscles, cyclists who have more aerobic/type 1 muscle fibers or higher aerobic enzymes produced in those muscles.

Changes in the expression of genes is not a new concept in the science of the human body. Many ordinary medicines can have this effect, as well as daily activities. Training and exercise at least partly modify the expression of one’s genes. But it’s this possibly permanent baseline transformation of the building blocks of the athlete’s body using technology that could be the next big illegal thing. (And possibly is already...). Universities of Washington and Florida were able to give trichromatic vision to squirrel monkeys (naturally dichromatic, using only two primary colours) using gene therapy, possibly leading to a treatment for colour blindness in humans in the future. Higher endurance and increase in musculature in “marathon mice” arose when a group of scientists studied three proteins controlled by a gene that influence how the body manages fats and sugars. This type of research eventually turned towards athletic performance.

How does gene doping work?
Usually a performance-enhancing gene is injected into an athlete carried in a harmless/damaged virus or bacteria (a vector; vehicle to transfer foreign genetic material into another cell). These synthetic genes now in the cells result in altered production of proteins/chemicals and cell function, continuing long-term in most cases.

One of the first gene therapy products associated with genetic doping appeared on the eve of the Turin 2006 Olympic Winter Games, where Repoxygen emerged as a possible substance in use at the Games. This medication was initially considered as a way to fight anaemia.

Detection can prove very difficult. The synthetic genes used most likely appear identical to the natural genes. Identifying the vector or particles of it is possible, but only through muscle biopsies (procedure in which a piece of muscle tissue is removed and examined microscopically). This is not ideal for athlete as some damage, swelling and weakness for a short time results. Genetic “bar codes” or markers can be produced by manufacturers/scientists for their therapeutic products, but this would require input from all relevant parties and administrators. Patterns of protein production and protein levels can also sometimes be analysed. The World Anti-Doping Authority is currently working on a test to check the expression of all 25,000 of the human body's genes, which will look for abnormal patterns.

There are many dangers and possible side effects of gene doping. Often a single gene will have more than one effect in the body and over time illicit other unwanted responses from the body. As with most substances, people’s bodies respond differently and their immune systems especially so. What looked like a successful bid to cure a severe immuno-deficiency disorder, the so-called bubble-baby syndrome, was stopped when some of the children in a French study developed leukaemia, which proved unexplainable. Increased risk of cancer is often a result of the change in DNA within cells. Some hereditary genes might become altered which will then affect children born to athletes. (Interesting thought: If those children grow up to be athletes, would they then also be identified and banned from competition...?)

The ethical issues raised are ever increasing. Cheating is taken to a whole new level. Are we getting closer and closer to playing God? With regards to the uncertainty of long-term effects, who’s to blame when things go wrong? Not only the athlete, but the sports community and society as a whole, will be harmed. Overall, the uniqueness and variety of sport would be removed.

BELGIAN BLUE BULL demonstrates the effect of blocking the antigrowth factor myostatin. A natural genetic mutation in this breed produces a truncated, ineffective form of myostatin, which allows muscle growth to go unchecked. The absence of myostatin also interferes with fat deposition, making these “double-muscled” cattle exceptionally lean.

Here's a really interesting case of when things go wrong:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Gelsinger

Jed

‘’Catch Your Breath” Why you Breathe So Heavily During Exercise.

Have you ever experienced breathlessness while exercising and training? Why do I breathe so heavily during exercise? What can be done to improve your breathing during exercise?

I want to explain some physiological terms and reasons that will help you understand why you get breathless during exercise. Firstly during exercise and ordinary living air that enters your lungs is termed inspiration and air that leaves your lungs is termed expiration. In order for both these processes to occur there has to be a positive pressure gradient, which happens when air moves from a high pressure to a lower pressure. So when inspiration occurs, the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere is greater than the partial pressure of oxygen within the lungs. Therefore the oxygen moves into the lungs, and from the lungs it moves into the bloodstream because the partial pressure of oxygen within the lungs is greater than the partial pressure within the blood. The oxygen within the bloodstream then enters the muscles and tissues due to a positive pressure gradient. Obviously when we breathe out we don’t expire oxygen but instead we expire carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide moves outside the body cells and into the capillaries and then from there it moves into the lungs and is expired through the mouth.

Another very important aspect is hemoglobin protein that is found within the blood cells. About 98% of oxygen is transported in the blood bound to hemoglobin. The affinity of oxygen to the hemoglobin depends on the partial pressure of oxygen within the blood. At very high partial pressure of oxygen like those found in the lungs results in the hemoglobin being saturated with the oxygen molecules. This is due to the fact that there is already a great amount of oxygen within the lungs. So hemoglobin does not need to unload much oxygen there. On the opposite spectrum low partial pressures of oxygen like those found at tissue level results in a great unloading of oxygen from hemoglobin. This is because at the tissue level the cells need great amounts of oxygen to function. Obviously during exercise this will change and greater amounts of oxygen will need to be delivered to the functioning tissues. During exercise the muscle temperature increases and blood ph levels drop. Both of these factors affect the affinity of oxygen to hemoglobin. These factors both result in more oxygen being unloaded at tissue and muscle level due to the fact that the partial pressure drops.

Have you ever wondered why you breathe so heavily after exercise or even walking fast up a flight of steps? This is termed EPOC (excess postexercise oxygen consumption) and can explain the reason for heavy breathing after exercise. When you start aerobic exercise your oxygen consumption takes several minutes to reach steady state and so the aerobic energy system doesn’t function immediately. So in order to generate energy for the working muscles the body has to rely on the anaerobic pathways to produce ATP. So therefore an oxygen deficit takes place during the first stage of exercise. At the end of exercise your breathing remains elevated for some time. This is because during the initial stage of exercise some oxygen was borrowed from hemoglobin and now at the end of the exercise it has to be replenished. The respiration also remains elevated during this time of recovery to get rid of the excess carbon dioxide that is formed as a by product during the anaerobic pathways. Also the muscle temperature is increased resulting in the respiration and metabolism remaining high.

If we put all of these physiological factors together we will be able to determine why we breathe so heavily during exercise. When you start exercising your muscle temperature increases and your blood ph level drops. This results in a build up of carbon dioxide within the blood stream and muscles causing the oxygen hemoglobin curve to shift to the left resulting in oxygen being delivered to the working cells at lower partial pressures. Due to this fact there will be less oxygen returning through the system to be delivered to the active areas, and there will be greater concentrations of carbon dioxide in the system. In order to overcome this imbalance the respiratory muscles will contract at a quicker rate so that they can speed up respiratory inspiration and expiration. During the inspiration phase the lungs will try to bring in more oxygen from the atmosphere, while during the expiration phase the lungs will be getting rid of the excess carbon dioxide. So basically the heavy breathing during exercise is a result of your muscles not being able to get enough oxygen to them, and also not being able to buffer the build up of carbon dioxide. Another reason for this could be that your body is using anaerobic pathways in order to produce energy during exercise. The heavy breathing will continue during exercise and slightly afterwards due to EPOC as explained previously.

What I suggest is that before you begin exercising to go for a light jog to almost get the muscles and the aerobic system ready for what is to follow. This will ensure that the muscles know what to expect and don’t have to take drastic measures when the intensity during the exercise is increased.

Trevor Court

GI - The Glycemic Index

Everyone loves to tell you all about low GI foods, because it slowly releases energy, "it'll last longer". Which is in fact true, it does release it slowly, but what exactly does it mean, and is it always good to eat low GI foods..? Do you know which foods are low GI..? While reading the article, try thinking about foods that you know as low GI, and I will include a list at the end.

The glycemic index is used to classify foods in terms of how long they raise the blood glucose levels. The reference point on the GI scale is white bread, which has a reading of 100 on the glycemic index. Foods that have a high GI are digested quickly, they raise blood glucose rapidly and also stimulate high insulin levels (insulin aids in transporting glucose from the blood to the muscle). The exact opposite is true for lower GI foods.

Now contrary to popular belief, sugars do not always rank as higher on the scale when compared to starches. Potatoes and table rice, rank higher than normal table sugar (sucrose) also, many things can affect the GI of a particular food (cooked/uncooked, processing, is it part of a meal or a snack on its own etc…?). So although the GI of a food is important, it is not a perfect way of analyzing your diet.

Studies have been shown that low GI foods increase exercise performance (Demarco et al.) but other studies have shown no difference between eating low/high GI foods before exercise/competition (Wee et al) (Thomas et al). So if your interest is when to eat certain foods before/after/during events, try experimenting a bit as more research needs to be done on the glycemic index with regards to exercise performance.

Glycemic index of certain foods:

White Bread 99
Sponge Cake 66
Corn Flakes 116
Oats 78
White Rice 91
Brown Rice 79
Linguine (pasta) 70
Milk (full cream) 38
Honey 78
Sucrose (sugar) 97
Apple 57
Banana 74
Orange 60
Potato (baked) 121
Peanuts 21
Yoghurt (sweetener) 20

(Baechle TR, Earle RW, essentials of strength training and conditioning, 2008)

JJ

Core Gymnastics: The Rings

We have all watched gymnastics, particularly the rings at some time on our lives and wondered, how on earth do they do it, how are they so strong and we stare in awe at the unbelievable strength and bodies these guys possess. It has to be noted that these specialized gymnasts are strong all over and strength train all the muscles of their body. Now what makes them so strong, in particular, lets look at the anatomy of it...

Firstly a gymnast has to have an extremely strong base and core to stabilize the body and keep swaying and movement to a minimum. By the core, I am referring to the following muscles, some which you may not know as "core" muscles as such. Muscles of the abdomen: Rectus abdominis, Transversus abdominis, internal/external obliques. Back: Erector Spinae group, Quadratus lumborum. Hip: Hip flexors (iliopsoas), Gluteal group (maximus, medius and minimus). All these muscles provide stabilization of the joints and stabilization of the trunk. Some muscles which are generally noted as prime movers, also act is stabilizers such as the gluteal group and hip flexors. Core training can be done through various methods generally involving controlled movement on unbalanced surfaces. For example a side bridge with shoulder and leg abduction, the core works hard to stabilize the bodies joints for a controlled slow movement to occur in the shoulder and hip joint as the body remains still.

Secondly the muscles of the shoulder girdle. Obviously in the rings, all the muscles of the body work hard, but the muscles that make up the shoulder complex and the muscles that act on the shoulder joint all play a massive role. Firstly the Pectoral region. Pectoralis major and pectoralis minor. The pec major mainly adducts (as in dumbbell fly's) and rotates the arm medially (inwards). Secondly the deltoids, abducts, extends, flexes arm (moves arm forward, backward and sideways away from the body). Thirdly the Triceps Brachii (extends the forearm at the elbow). Also the Latissimus dorsi (extends, adducts, rotates arm medially). These muscles jump out at us as the strong, prime movers in the main action of gymnastic rings. The first two on the shoulder joint and the third on the elbow, and the latter on the shoulder and scapula. But not to be overlooked are the stabilizing muscles in the performing of ring exercises. To start there is the serrarus anterior. This muscle connects the ribs to the scapular, it is a broad thin muscle that can move the scapula down and anteriorly but mainly assists in stabilizing the scapula through a range of movements. The rotator cuff group (supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor and subscapularis). This group also moves the humerus in the shoulder joint through external and internal rotation as well as abduction, but also mainly stabilizes and assists the larger muscle groups through all movements. The Trapezius muscle (all fibres) and the two Rhomboid groups (major and minor), also assist in movement of the scapula and the trapezius also acts as a stabilizer of the scapula. The biceps brachii also will aid in stabilization of the shoulder and elbow joints.

So after all this what am i saying..?

Many people can be strength trained for the rings by just training on the rings, but what little bit extra can be done..? And what else other than strengthening of the large groups can be done..?

It comes down to those stabilizers. Now other than training on the rings, additional strength training needs to be done in the gym, but how..? Firstly, barbells must be replaced with dumbbells. Using dumbbells aids in recruitement of the stabilizers of the shoulder girdle and increased stabilizer strength leads to increased prime mover strength. So dumbbell press as opposed to flat bench press would help. Secondly performing normal exercises such as dumbbell curls at differing angles, such as at 30 degrees lateral rotation would increase rotator cuff involvement. Also performing exercises on medicine balls/physio balls or balance boards to increase proprioception (relative awareness of limb position) and greatly increase strength of the stabilizers such as the serratus anterior and rotator cuff group (plyometric push ups on a medicine ball, push ups on balance boards etc...). Using thera bands for the rotator cuff group is also a possible strength aid.

So in addition to simple, standard strength training exercises, simple stabilization added exercises need to be performed to increase performance that little extra.

Here are some links with regards to anatomy and exercises...
http://exrx.net/Lists/ExList/ChestWt.html#anchor682036
http://familydoctor.org/online/famdocen/home/healthy/physical/injuries/265.html
http://www.shoulder-pain-management.com/shoulderrotatorcuffexercises.html
http://www.changingshape.com/exercise/musclecharts/

JJ

Best Time of the Day to Exercise?

You may have noticed the poll we had running this last week or so. Is there science behind the results/preferences of when people prefer to train and exercise? Are certain times of the day better or worse than others? How much do psychological factors, rather than physical reasons, effect when people hit the gym?

There’s pros and cons both ways with regards to AM versus PM exercise and there are a lot of factors that influence specific exercise and its benefits (eg. nutrition, time). Everybody is effected in many ways by a “body clock” / circadian rhythm. This is an important mechanism for hormone release, activation of electrical activity in muscle, etc. This will have an effect on peoples’ exercise and training times. For example, many elderly folks prefer to exercise early in the morning, as they rise earlier, with an altered circadian rhythm and sleep patterns.

Mornings are generally better for exercise when trying to lose weight. One advantage of morning exercise is an elevated Resting Metabolic Rate (metabolism) through the day. This is accompanied by a phenomenon known as EPOC (Excess Post-exercise Oxygen Consumption) which can promote further fat loss over time. People that exercise in the morning also tend to have higher levels of adherence to exercise/training programs. Many ‘early birds’ also feel their mood is improved from the start of their day.
Some of us just aren’t “morning people” though and should rather find a time of day that we feel better about exercising. Mornings are also often accompanied by lower blood glucose, not so good for any weight/anaerobic training. Injuries are more common with morning training; body temperature is lower, flexibility is decreased and co-ordination with complex exercise techniques will be affected. Morning exercise has been shown to have a slightly higher risk of heart attack or stroke.

Two hormones that play a roll in exercise are Cortisol and Testosterone. Cortisol, a catabolic (breakdown) hormone, is highest within the body in the morning and decreases throughout the day. Testosterone, the main anabolic (build up) hormone, reaches its highest levels, relative to Cortisol, in the afternoon/evening.

Studies have shown that maximal strength reaches highest levels only after midday, with anaerobic and endurance ability peaking in the afternoon. This links with the higher anabolic hormone (Testosterone and Growth Hormone) state within the body to make afternoon/evening exercise slightly better for endurance, muscle mass and strength training. Body temperature rises steadily throughout the day, which makes sports performance generally better during late afternoon/evening. Exercise, especially at gyms, does tend to be more social in the afternoon and evenings too.
Exercising regularly in the PM does tend to be more difficult to maintain for some people as work commitments or distractions can interfere, although dealing with the day’s stress can be an added benefit of exercising at this time. Sleep is not generally affected by exercise, so evening exercise should be fine for most people.

Remember though, any exercise is better than no exercise at all.
Jed

The Importance of Interval Training for Cyclists

What increases the performance of a cyclist? Is it all about doing lots of mileage at slow speeds, or is it about doing interval training? That's the question that every cyclist asks themselves when it comes to seeing the best results. Obviously we know that cycling is an endurance sport that focuses mainly on the breakdown of fatty acids to convert them into energy for our muscles to utilize. But is there a more efficient way of training that will help cyclists to be able to ride and race at higher intensities without fatiguing so soon. Are you doing the wrong sort of training?

Many cyclists overlook the importance of interval training because they think that in order to ride and perform better they just need to ride for longer durations. In a recent study that I've read by (Kirsten A. Burgomaster et al.) they suggest that by only doing short sprint intervals for two weeks you will be able to see greater physiological changes that will improve your performance. In this study there was a greater increase in the oxidative enzyme called citrate synthase which is a good indicator of aerobic performance. The main adaptations that occur during aerobic training are the development of the mitochondria which help deliver energy to the working muscles and an increase in the number of capillaries within the exercising muscles. A trend with endurance training over a number of months has shown an increase in VO2max to a certain degree until it eventually plateaus, whereas the oxidative enzymes within the mitochondria continue to rise. The changes to the mitochondria that are brought on by training result in something called glycogen sparing, which is the sparing of glycogen as an energy source and instead breaking down fats at higher intensities. This would obviously result in the muscles being able to produce energy at a higher intensity while being able to minimize the amount of by products such as lactate that hinder the muscles from functioning properly at that given intensity.

So now that you know that pure endurance training has its limitations in terms of VO2max. We can see that there is a place for interval training, and that it plays an important role in increasing the mitochondria's functional capacity. Interval training also helps the muscles to function at a higher intensity without completely depleting the muscle glycogen stores. There is a place for long endurance training, because you have to ensure that your VO2max has reached its ceiling level, but you won't see the same results if you just do endurance training without doing short intense intervals. During the off season or base as it's termed in cycling, the cyclist can implement short intervals into their training program. They just have to perform very short intervals once or twice a week for a few weeks.

If you're stuck in the same place in terms of training and improving, and you feel that you aren't going anywhere, give interval training a bash and see the results for yourself. Sometimes it's good to break routine and do something that might stress the muscles in a different way. Don't take my word for it, get on the bike and do it yourself.

Trevor

EPO: The Blood Booster

Doping with EPO (Erythropoietin) seems to have begun in the 1980’s with competitive endurance athletes and The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) placed it on its list of banned substances in 1990. A reliable and valid detection test developed by French scientists was adopted and implemented in time for the 2000 Olympic Games. This performance enhancing substance has been linked to sudden deaths of athletes and many doping scandals over the years.

Erythropoietin is a naturally occurring hormone, which is produced by the kidneys. It stimulates the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells (RBC’s). This therefore increases the heamatocrit (non-liquid element of blood) and heamoglobin (oxygen carrying chemical) levels of blood. It was first developed as a drug to treat anemia, kidney failure and post-surgery blood loss. It can also be used to assist recovery from chemotherapy and deal with complications of HIV/Aids.

By raising the amount of red blood cells in the blood, the potential to transport oxygen around the body is increased. This improves energy production, especially through the aerobic/endurance energy system, which decreases the use of the anaerobic/short-term energy system, levels of lactate and fatigue. The marker for physical fitness / aerobic capacity, VO2 max, is then increased. Studies have shown time to fatigue/exhaustion (exercise tolerance) can be extended by up to 17% while taking EPO!

But it’s not all good. The increased heamatocrit/RBC levels causes hyperviscosity of the blood (excess density). Some side effects can include raised blood pressure, dehydration, nausea, lethargy, fever and seizures. This thicker blood can increase chance of heart attacks and stroke, as the cardiovascular system is overloaded. Often, once the drug is abused, the amount of RBC production that will actually take place becomes hard to predict, adding to the risks involved. In recent years, in addition to more extensive and accurate testing, some sporting codes have set up safety cut off levels of heamatocrit (50%), although this has been seen as unsuitable, as ‘normal’ levels of heamatocrit vary greatly from person to person.

The most well-known incident of EPO use in sport occurred around the 1998 Tour de France, when the Festina cycle team was found with large quantities of EPO and other banned substances during the 17th stage. Other high profile cases of EPO doping include two cross-country skiers at the 2002 Winter Olympics, an female Ironman World Champs silver medallist and a double cross-country world champion. Along with the laboratory manufactured versions of EPO, newer advanced bone marrow stimulating chemicals/drugs are being developed, such as CERA (Continuous Erythropoiesis Receptor Activator). This modern option for doping has a unique action on bone marrow that differs slightly to EPO and it’s effects can last longer inside the body. A test for CERA was a surprise addition to the 2008 Tour de France and later two-time stage winner Stefan Schumacher was found guilty of doping. In 2009 the International Olympic Committee (IOC) declared that it was to re-test blood and urine samples from the Beijing Summer Olympics for CERA and in November of last year, the Olympic 1500m champion Rashid Ramzi was stripped of his gold medal after testing positive.

Here’s a few links that you might find interesting:
WADA – http://www.wada-ama.org/en/
Doping Cases - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_doping_cases_in_sport

Jed

Cramping up? Didn't have a banana today? Think again...

We have all suffered from some form of cramps in our lives, and we all hate them, especially when exercising or competing. I in particular am a great sufferer of these horrible yet interesting phenomena. There are many theories that discuss the reasons behind cramping. I will discuss the most commonly thought perpetrator – the theory that uses low salt or electrolyte levels, and the newer theory, to do with muscular fatigue and certain receptors within the muscle.

The theory that uses the old thought that the loss of electrolytes (for example - sodium, magnesium, potassium, sometimes referred to as salts) through sweating and dehydration in hot weather to be the cause of cramping. However research has shown many times over that in people who cramp, electrolyte and dehydration levels remain relatively the same compared to those who did not cramp or are usual sufferers of cramping. Another problem I have in particular with this theory in relation to my experiences is that I often cramp up when swimming, even in coldish water, when I am not sweating and my body is immersed in cool water, however when I go for a long jog, I usually don’t cramp and while jogging it is hot and I am sweating profusely, so then what could be causing my cramping..?

The other theory I would like to discuss is a muscle fatigue theory. It is to do with increased alpha motor neuron activity. These neurons innervate muscles and are responsible for initiating muscle contraction. These alpha motor neurons increase in activity during exercise resulting in more muscle contraction. Now within muscles and their tendons are two mechanoreceptors (detect mechanical change), a Golgi Tendon Organ (GTO) which detects increased contraction and tension in muscles and relaxes them before they are damaged, and Muscle Spindles which detect over stretching of muscles and contract the muscles when they are over stretched before they get damaged. When these two are in balance everything is fine. During usually long bouts of increased activity, muscle spindle activity increases and GTO activity decreases (more contraction, less relaxation) which result in a muscle cramping.
Another side theory to this muscle fatigue theory is that muscles prone to cramping are often muscles that cross over two joints such as the gastrocnemius (muscle of the calf group) (ankle and knee joints) , yes you know what a calf cramp feels like, the hamstring group (hip and knee joints) and the rectus femoris (hip and knee joints) (part of the quadriceps). Now these are three of the most common cramps experienced in activity. This is thought to be because muscles most often cramp in shortened positions, and a muscle that crosses two joints can be shortened that little extra (if your toes are pointed down – plantar flexion, and your knee is flexed, your gastrocnemius is shortened further that just from pointing your toes down). In a shortened position your GTO has even further decreased ability to relax the muscle and increased contraction can result in a cramp.

The most simple way of relieving these cramps are to passively stretch the muscle out using your hands for example. This increases muscle tension and activates the GTO which then relaxes the muscle again and relieves the cramp.

The mechanisms behind cramping are not set in stone, but theories do exist, some with more merit than others. So next time you cramp up, don’t just jump for your electrolyte drink or your old faithful banana. Maybe think about a nice quiet stretch and some rest, maybe, just maybe it’ll work for you too…!

JJ

Creatine: What you should know

Creatine is a compound naturally produced in the liver, kidneys and pancreas from amino acids (simple proteins) and can also be obtained in foods such as meat and fish (especially raw, eg. sushi) and to a lesser extent eggs and soya products. Almost all creatine in the body is stored in skeletal muscle, transported there via the blood, and is used in energy production and muscle contractions.

Creatine is utilised in muscle tissue (in the form of creatine phosphate - CP) to reform the high-energy/energy storing compound ATP, particularly during short-term, high intensity movements and activity. Over time, CP stores in the muscles are used up and one becomes unable to maintain high intensities in, for example, sprinting or lifting weights. Supplementing with creatine therefore helps to delay this fatigue.
It has also been shown to increase strength and body weight gains, as well as improve recovery after workouts/training. Increase in body weight is due to higher levels of protein synthesis/formation (muscle mass) but also increased movement and storage of water in muscle tissue. (Looking and feeling slightly bigger just as creatine intake starts is not therefore miraculous growth, but probably just this increase in water storage in the muscle cells)

Most studies into the side-effects of supplementing with creatine have been unable to come upon any notable adverse effects, even after relatively long-term ingestion. This being said, it most be noted there are no completed long term (>5years) studies. Mild digestive system disturbances, such as mild diarrhoea or cramps, have been reported occasionally during the initial loading phase of creatine supplementation.
Increased fluid intake is often recommended, as increased water in the muscle tissue means less to other parts of the body, such as the heart and brain. Creatine is frequently recommended to be taken or mixed with simple sugary foods or fruit juices, as absorption out of the digestive system into the bloodstream is enhanced in the presence of sugars.

Note: Creatine has possible negative interactions with NSAID’s (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), caffeine, diuretics and some gout treatments.
Remember, your doctor knows best.

Jed

Strength Training and Recovery times

As a response to a question we were posed on how to train muscles in the gym, do you train them all, all the time or not and how do rest days and recovery work?

It comes down to intensity. Intensity refers down to how much you are lifting and how many times you are lifting it. So basically it means how many reps and sets are you doing and how heavy are the weights? The higher the intensity of your work out the more time you will need to rest. So as an example if you are performing a strength and power training program, where you are lifting heavy weights and performing few reps for example doing 2-6 repetitions at 85-95% of your 1RM (1RM = one repetition maximum, the most you can lift in one push) then your intensity will be high and require a long period of rest between training days of the same muscle group. Equally if you are training for musclular endurance and performing 15-20 reps at a lower percentage of 1RM for example at 65% of your 1RM, a similar intensity will be achieved. Not to forget to also include the number of exercises you are performing per muscle group and how many sets you are performing of each exercise. So if you are performing only one exercise for the chest group using a strength training protocol (2-6 reps, 4 sets and more at 80-100% 1RM), your intensity will be far less than if you perform four exercises for the same muscle group.

So when training muscle groups, at high intensities, long periods of recovery are required and usually training a muscle group once per week is sufficient or up to twice a week at lower intensities to allow sufficient recovery time for the muscles to repair themselves.

Recovery of muscles involves the muscle repairing itself after damage due to overloading of the muscle fibres. DOMS (delayed onset muscle soreness) or commonly known as "being stiff" is a result not of the commonly thought of bad guy - lactic acid or lactate, whis has been shown to be removed within as little as an hour after exercise, but rather from actual structural damage of the muscle fibres and inflammation (the movement of certain cells such as white blood cells to the injured site to remove debris and initiate the healing process). So basically what happens in DOMS ("stiffness") is (Armstrong, 1984): high levels of tension in the muscles during training can result in actual structural damage to the muscle fibres and cell membranes. The resultant damage of cell membranes disturbs calcium homeostatsis (balance) which results in what is called necrosis or cell death which is at a peak after about 48 hours after the acute muscle damage. Then products of macrophage activity (macrophage - cell type from the immune system invade the injured area to remove debris and then invade again to aid in muscle regeneration) accumulate outside the damaged cells which stimulate free nerve endings (possible pain).

So recovery of muscle fibres can take days to repair themselves and sometimes even after the pain of DOMS subsides, it has been shown that muscles are still not fully reovered and not back to full strength. So firstly be aware of your damaged muscles and that if they are sore, they are not ready for exercise again, and that the harder you work the more recovery time you need until you train the same muscle group again and training a muscle group once a week is actually often beneficial as it allows the muscles to fully recover and for you to work it as hard again the next week and benefit from the strength and structural gains of the muscle.


JJ

Welcome to ExerQ

Thank you for visiting our exercise science blog - ExerQ. We are three young guys qualified in the field of Sports Science and currently doing our honours in Exercise Science. This blog is available to inform you on any current information in the science of exercise, fitness and sports.

We will cover topics regarding fitness, sports training, nutrition, current news and any questions you the readers have. Feel free to post comments on our posts or if you feel the need to know more about any particular topics or news and the science behind them. You can also join our facebook group, ExerQ - Exercise Science Q&A Blog.

We will start posting on Monday the 22nd of February 2010. Be sure to check it out...

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